Evaluation of Th1/Th2, regulatory cytokines and transcriptional factor FoxP3 in sheep immunized with a partially protective and non-protective vaccine and challenged with Fasciola hepatica.

Gene expression for Th1/Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IFN-É£), regulatory cytokines (TGF-ß and IL-10) and the transcriptional factor FoxP3 was analyzed in the liver and hepatic lymph nodes (HLN) from sheep immunized with partially protective and non-protective vaccine candidates and challenged with Fasciola hepatica. FoxP3 T cells were also evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHQ). The most remarkable difference between the partially protected vaccinated (V1) group and the non-protected vaccinated (V2) group was a more severe expansion of FoxP3 T cells recorded by IHQ in both the liver and HLN of the V2 group as compared to the V1 group, whereas no differences were found between the V2 group and the infected control (IC) group. Similar results were recorded for FoxP3 gene expression although significant differences among V1 and V2 groups were only significant in the HLN, while FoxP3 gene expression was very similar in the V2 and IC groups both in the liver and HLN. No significant differences for the remaining cytokines were recorded between the V1 and V2 groups, but in the liver the V2 group shows significant increases of IFN-É£ and IL-10 as compared to the uninfected control (UC) group whereas the V1 group did not. The lower expansion of FoxP3 T cells and lower increase of IFN-É£ and IL-10 in the partially protected vaccinated group may be related with lower hepatic lesions and fluke burdens recorded in this group as compared to the other two infected groups. The most relevant change in regulatory cytokine gene expression was the significant increase of TGF-ß in the liver of IC, V1 and V2 groups as compared to the UC group, which could be related to hepatic lesions.

Evaluation of the Role of Galectins in Parasite Immunity.

Galectin-11 (LGALS-11) and galectin-14 (LGALS-14) are ruminant specific galectins, first reported in sheep. Although their roles in parasite immunity are still being elucidated, it appears that they influence protection against parasites. In gastrointestinal infections with the nematode Haemonchus contortus, both galectin-11 and galectin-14 appear to be protective. However, in a chronic infection of liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, these galectins may aid parasite survival. To unravel the structural, functional, and ligand profile of galectin-11 and galectin-14, recombinant production of these proteins is vital. Here we present the recombinant production of soluble galectin-11 and galectin-14 from domestic sheep for in vitro and structural biology studies. These methods include parasite cultivation and infection, galectin staining of host and parasite tissue, surface staining of parasites with recombinant galectins, pull-down assays to identify endogenous galectin binding proteins, and in vitro assays to monitor the effect of galectins on parasite development.

Fasciola hepatica is refractory to complement killing by preventing attachment of mannose binding lectin (MBL) and inhibiting MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) with serpins.

The complement system is a first-line innate host immune defence against invading pathogens. It is activated via three pathways, termed Classical, Lectin and Alternative, which are mediated by antibodies, carbohydrate arrays or microbial liposaccharides, respectively. The three complement pathways converge in the formation of C3-convertase followed by the assembly of a lethal pore-like structure, the membrane attack complex (MAC), on the pathogen surface. We found that the infectious stage of the helminth parasite Fasciola hepatica, the newly excysted juvenile (NEJ), is resistant to the damaging effects of complement. Despite being coated with mannosylated proteins, the main initiator of the Lectin pathway, the mannose binding lectin (MBL), does not bind to the surface of live NEJ. In addition, we found that recombinantly expressed serine protease inhibitors secreted by NEJ (rFhSrp1 and rFhSrp2) selectively prevent activation of the complement via the Lectin pathway. Our experiments demonstrate that rFhSrp1 and rFhSrp2 inhibit native and recombinant MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs), impairing the primary step that mediates C3b and C4b deposition on the NEJ surface. Indeed, immunofluorescence studies show that MBL, C3b, C4b or MAC are not deposited on the surface of NEJ incubated in normal human serum. Taken together, our findings uncover new means by which a helminth parasite prevents the activation of the Lectin complement pathway to become refractory to killing via this host response, in spite of presenting an assortment of glycans on their surface.

Timing of Transcriptomic Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Responses of Sheep to Fasciola hepatica Infection Differs From Those of Cattle, Reflecting Different Disease Phenotypes.

Infection with the zoonotic trematode Fasciola hepatica, common in many regions with a temperate climate, leads to delayed growth and loss of productivity in cattle, while infection in sheep can have more severe effects, potentially leading to death. Previous transcriptomic analyses revealed upregulation of TGFB1, cell death and Toll-like receptor signalling, T-cell activation, and inhibition of nitric oxide production in macrophages in response to infection. However, the differences between ovine and bovine responses have not yet been explored. The objective of this study was to further investigate the transcriptomic response of ovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to F. hepatica infection, and to elucidate the differences between ovine and bovine PBMC responses. Sixteen male Merino sheep were randomly assigned to infected or control groups (n = 8 per group) and orally infected with 120 F. hepatica metacercariae. Transcriptomic data was generated from PBMC at 0, 2 and 16 weeks post-infection (wpi), and analysed for differentially expressed (DE) genes between infected and control animals at each time point (analysis 1), and for each group relative to time 0 (analysis 2). Analysis 2 was then compared to a similar study performed previously on bovine PBMC. A total of 453 DE genes were found at 2 wpi, and 2 DE genes at 16 wpi (FDR < 0.1, analysis 1). Significantly overrepresented biological pathways at 2 wpi included role of PKR in interferon induction and anti-viral response, death receptor signalling and RIG-I-like receptor signalling, which suggested that an activation of innate response to intracellular nucleic acids and inhibition of cellular apoptosis were taking place. Comparison of analysis 2 with the previous bovine transcriptomic study revealed that anti-inflammatory response pathways which were significantly overrepresented in the acute phase in cattle, including IL-10 signalling, Th2 pathway, and Th1 and Th2 activation were upregulated only in the chronic phase in sheep. We propose that the earlier activation of anti-inflammatory responses in cattle, as compared with sheep, may be related to the general absence of acute clinical signs in cattle. These findings offer scope for "smart vaccination" strategies for this important livestock parasite.

Prospects for liver fluke vaccines.

Fasciola spp., Opisthorchis spp. and Clonorchis sinensis are common liver flukes that can cause a variety of diseases, mainly cholangiocarcinoma induced by clonorchiasis and liver damage and associated pathology induced by fascioliasis. Because these trematodes are parasites of humans and domestic animals, they have greatly affected the economy of agricultural industries and public health worldwide. Due to the emergence of drug resistance and the living habits of flukes, among other reasons, a possibility of reinfection remains even when antiparasitic drugs are used. Therefore, developing a safe, efficient and cost-effective vaccine against trematodes is an important goal. Here, we briefly describe the progress in the development of vaccines against liver flukes. Related innovations may provide effective protection against these helminths and the diseases that they cause.

Describing the intestinal microbiota of Holstein Fasciola-positive and -negative cattle from a hyperendemic area of fascioliasis in central Colombia.

The ability to identify compositional changes in the intestinal microbiota of parasitized hosts is important for understanding the physiological processes that may affect animal productivity. Within the field of host-parasite interactions, many studies have suggested that helminths can influence the microbial composition of their hosts via their immunomodulatory effects. Bovine fascioliasis is a helminthiasis widely studied by immunologists, but with little information available regarding gut microbial communities. Thus, we aimed to describe the composition of the intestinal microbiota of Holstein Fasciola-positive and -negative cattle using parasitological methods and ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). Bovine fecal samples (n = 65) were obtained from livestock slaughter plants in the Cundi-Boyacense Colombian highlands (a hyperendemic region for bovine fascioliasis) and studied by amplicon-based next-generation 16S-rRNA and 18S-rRNA gene sequencing. From these samples, 35 were Fasciola hepatica-negative and, 30 were F. hepatica-positive in our detection analysis. Our results showed a reduction in the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Ascomycota in the Fasciola-positive samples, along with decreased relative abundances of the commensal taxa previously associated with fermentation and digestion processes. However, metabolomic approaches and functional analyzes of the intestinal microbiota are necessary to support these hypothesis. These findings are a small first step in the development of research aimed at understanding how microbial populations in bovines are modulated in liver helminth infections.

Diagnosis of sheep fasciolosis caused by Fasciola hepatica using cathepsin L enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).

Fasciolosis, a global parasitic disease of agricultural livestock, is caused by the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica. Management and strategic control of fasciolosis on farms depends on early assessment of the extent of disease so that control measures can be implemented quickly. Traditionally, this has relied on the detection of eggs in the faeces of animals, a laborious method that lacks sensitivity, especially for sub-clinical infections, and identifies chronic infections only. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) offer a quicker and more sensitive serological means of diagnosis that could detect early acute infection before significant liver damage occurs. The performance of three functionally-active recombinant forms of the major F. hepatica secreted cathepsins L, rFhCL1, rFhCL2, rFhCL3, and a cathepsin B, rFhCB3, were evaluated as antigens in an indirect ELISA to serologically diagnose liver fluke infection in experimentally and naturally infected sheep. rFhCL1 and rFhCL3 were the most effective of the four antigens detecting fasciolosis in sheep as early as three weeks after experimental infection, at least five weeks earlier than both coproantigen and faecal egg tests. In addition, the rFhCL1 and rFhCL3 ELISAs had a very low detection limit for liver fluke in lambs exposed to natural infection on pastures and thus could play a major role in the surveillance of farms and a 'test and treat' approach to disease management. Finally, antibodies to all three cathepsin L proteases remain high throughout chronic infection but decline rapidly after drug treatment with the flukicide, triclabendazole, implying that the test may be adapted to trace the effectiveness of drug treatment.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Ovine Hepatic Lymph Node Following Fasciola hepatica Infection - Inhibition of NK Cell and IgE-Mediated Signaling.

Fasciola hepatica is a trematode parasite responsible for major economic losses in livestock production, and is also a food-borne zoonotic agent in developing rural regions. For years, the immunoregulatory mechanisms employed by the parasite have hampered efforts to develop a successful vaccine candidate. Given that a comprehensive understanding of the immune response to infection is needed, we investigated the gene expression changes in ovine hepatic lymph nodes after experimental infection with F. hepatica. Lymph nodes from uninfected and infected animals were processed for RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) at 16 weeks post-infection. Comparison of groups revealed 5,132 differentially-expressed genes (DEGs). An inhibition of pro-inflammatory pathways, which has previously been described during fasciolosis, was evident in our data. However, other signals previously identified in ruminant peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) or liver tissue, such as activation of TGF-ß or apoptosis-related pathways were not detected. We found inhibition of some key immunological pathways, including natural killer (NK) cell activity and IgE-mediated signaling. These may point to additional some as yet unrecognized mechanisms employed by the parasite to evade the host immune response. Understanding these, and leveraging information from this and other omics studies, will be important for the development of future vaccine prototypes against this parasite.

Fasciola hepatica Infection Risk for Adult Household Members Living with Children with Fascioliasis in Cusco, Peru.

Fasciola hepatica is highly prevalent in the highlands of Peru. School-age children have the greatest risk of infection. Mass treatment of at-risk populations has been proposed to control the infection and prevent complications. However, the decreasing effectiveness of triclabendazole raises concerns regarding this strategy. Previous studies reported aggregation of Fasciola infection among family members. This study aimed to determine the risk of fascioliasis among household members living with Fasciola-infected children identified through school-based testing. We conducted a cross-sectional study including adult members of households where children with and without fascioliasis were identified. Demographic, epidemiological, and socioeconomic information was collected. One blood sample was drawn to test for Fasciola antibodies, and three stool samples were collected for microscopy for Fasciola ova. We tested 326 adults from 213 households. Of these adult subjects, chronic fascioliasis (24 of 326, 7.4%) was the most common helminth infection. Thirty-nine subjects (12.7%) tested positive for Fasciola antibodies. Combining microscopy and serum antibody tests, 13.2% (43 of 326) had evidence of Fasciola infection. One third (104 of 326, 31.9%) of the participants lived with at least one child infected with Fasciola hepatica. Adults with fascioliasis were four times more likely to live with an infected child. Poverty and diet were associated with increased risk of Fasciola infection. Adults with fascioliasis were significantly more likely to live with Fasciola-infected children.

The fatty acid-binding protein (FABP) decreases the clinical signs and modulates immune responses in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE).

BACKGROUND: An increasing body of studies has shown that Fasciola hepatica can affect immune responses. This study explored whether the fatty acid-binding protein (FABP) of F. hepatica can modulate the immune system in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). METHODS: EAE-induced C57BL/6 mice were treated with vehicle, F. hepatica total extract (TE) or FABP. The clinical signs, body weights, and the expression of IFN-γ, T-bet, IL-4, GATA3, IL-17, RORγ, TGF-ß, FOXP3, IL-10, TNF-α genes and proteins were determined in the isolated CD4+ splenocytes. Besides, the percentage of Treg cells and degree of demyelination were evaluated. RESULTS: We found that TE and FABP treatments decreased the clinical scores, lymphocyte infiltration rate, and demyelinated plaques in EAE mice. The expressions of IL-4 and GATA3 were increased, whereas IL-17 and TNF-α were down-regulated. FABP did not affect the expression of IFN-γ, RORγ, IL-10, and TGF-ß genes or proteins but reduced the expression of T-bet. TE administration did not affect the expression of IL-10 and the Tbet genes, and increased the expression levels of IFN-γ and FOXP3 in CD4+ lymphocytes. Both FABP and TE treatment did not affect the Treg cell percentage. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that F. hepatica FABP and TE can suppress the inflammatory responses in EAE-induced mice and shift the immune system toward Th2 responses. However, FABP exerts stronger anti-inflammatory effects and seems to be more effective than TE for EAE treatment.

Vaccination with cathepsin L phage-exposed mimotopes, single or in combination, reduce size, fluke burden, egg production and viability in sheep experimentally infected with Fasciola hepatica.

Fascioliasis is a worldwide emergent zoonotic disease that significantly constrains the productivity of livestock. In this study, fluke burdens, liver fluke size and biomass, faecal eggs counts, serum levels of hepatic enzymes and immune response were assessed in sheep vaccinated with peptide mimotopes of cathepsin L and infected with metacercariae. A total of 25 sheep were allocated randomly into five groups of five animals each, and experimental groups were immunised with 1 × 1013 filamentous phage particles of cathepsin L1 (CL1) (TPWKDKQ), CL2 (YGSCFLR) and mixtures of CL1 + CL2 mimotopes, in combination with Quil A adjuvant, and wild-type M13KE phage in a two-vaccination scheme on weeks 0 and 4. The control group received phosphate-buffered saline. All groups were challenged with 300 metacercariae two weeks after the last immunisation and euthanised 16 weeks later. The CL1 vaccine was estimated to provide 57.58% protection compared with the control group; no effect was observed in animals immunised with CL2 and CL1 + CL2 (33.14% and 11.63%, respectively). However, animals receiving CL2 had a significant reduction in parasite egg output. Vaccinated animals showed a significant reduction in fluke length and width and wet weights. In the CL1 group, there was a significant reduction in the total biomass of parasites recovered. Egg development was divided into seven stages: dead, empty, unembryonated, cell division, eyespot, hatched and hatching. The highest percentage of developmental stages was detected for vaccinated sheep administered CL1 + CL2 with cell division, and the lowest percentage was observed in the hatching stage. Furthermore, a significant difference in all developmental stages was observed between vaccinated animals and the control group (P < 0.01). The levels of anti-phage total IgG in immune sera increased significantly at four weeks after immunisation and were always significantly higher for cathepsin L vaccine group than in the challenged control group. Total IgG was inversely and significantly correlated with worm burden in the CL1 group.

Vaccination with cathepsin L mimotopes of Fasciola hepatica in goats reduces worm burden, morphometric measurements, and reproductive structures.

Fasciolosis is a worldwide emergent zoonotic disease that significantly constrains the productivity of livestock. We conducted an experimental trial with four groups of five goats each, vaccinated with 1 × 1013 phage particles of cathepsin L1 (CLI: DPWWLKQ), CL1 (SGTFLFS), and CL2 (PPIRNGK) mimotopes combined with Quil A adjuvant. Animals received a booster four weeks later. The control group received phosphate-buffered saline. All animals were infected with 200 Fasciola hepatica metacercariae at week six and euthanised 16 weeks later. The percentage of significant worm reduction in CL1 (DPWWLKQ), CL1 (SGTFLFS), and CL2 (PPIRNGK) compared to the control group were 55.40%, 70.42% (P < 0.05), and 32.39%, respectively. Vaccinated animals showed a significant reduction in faecal egg production and egg viability. A significant reduction in the total biomass of parasites recovered was observed in the CL1 (DPWWLKQ) and CL1 (SGTFLFS) groups. In goats vaccinated with CL2 (PPIRNGK), fluke length and width were smaller than those in the control group. Furthermore, animals receiving CL mimotopes showed a significant reduction in the total area of reproductive structures. Goats immunised with phage-displayed mimotopes produced significantly high titres of specific IgG1 and IgG2 isotypes, indicating a mixed Th1/Th2 response. The liver fluke burdens in goats vaccinated with CL1 (DPWWLKQ) and CL1 (SGTFLFS) were significantly correlated with IgG and IgG1 levels.

Efficacy of a multivalent vaccine against Fasciola hepatica infection in sheep.

In this work we report the protection found in a vaccination trial performed in sheep with two different vaccines composed each one by a cocktail of antigens (rCL1, rPrx, rHDM and rLAP) formulated in two different adjuvants (Montanide ISA 61 VG (G1) and Alhydrogel®(G2)). The parameters of protection tested were fluke burden, faecal egg count and evaluation of hepatic lesions. In vaccinated group 1 we found a significant decrease in fluke burden in comparison to both unimmunised and infected control group (37.2%; p = 0.002) and to vaccinated group 2 (Alhydrogel®) (27.08%; p = 0.016). The lower fluke burden found in G1 was accompanied by a decrease in egg output of 28.71% in comparison with the infected control group. Additionally, gross hepatic lesions found in vaccine 1 group showed a significant decrease (p = 0.03) in comparison with unimmunised-infected group. The serological study showed the highest level for both IgG1 and IgG2 in animals from group 1. All these data support the hypothesis of protection found in vaccine 1 group.

Differences in the antibody response to adult Fasciola hepatica excretory/secretory products in experimentally and naturally infected cattle and sheep.

Fasciola hepatica (the liver fluke) is a common, global parasite of livestock. It can be highly pathogenic and has health and welfare implications for infected individuals. Typically, in ruminants, infections are sub-clinical, but if undiagnosed, they can lead to significant production losses. Accurate diagnosis is crucial to identify infection. Antibody detection ELISAs are commonly used to diagnose infection due to their high sensitivity and specificity and are typically based on native fluke excretory/secretory (ES) products or cathepsin L1 (CL1), the immunodominant antigen within ES products. These tests have been developed based on the antibody response of experimentally infected animals; however, this response has not been well characterised in naturally infected animals. We compared the antibody recognition of a recombinant CL1 (rCL1) antigen and native adult fluke ES products. Whilst samples from experimentally infected animals showed strong recognition of rCL1, serum antibodies from naturally infected animals did not. These results were confirmed by peptide array. Immunoblotting sera against ES products showed that experimentally infected animals had a strong, specific response to CL1/CL2 proteins whilst antibodies from naturally infected animals recognised multiple proteins and had a variable response to CL1/CL2. Mass spectrometry of proteins separated by 2D SDS PAGE, identified several antigens recognised by serum antibodies from a naturally infected cow, including cathepsins L1, L2 and L5, glutathione S-transferase and a dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase. Overall, these results show that the antibody response in naturally infected animals to adult fluke ES products is qualitatively different to experimentally infected animals. This suggests that a diagnostic test based on CL1 alone may not be appropriate for diagnosis of natural F. hepatica infections in sheep and cattle.

A Vaccine Based on Kunitz-Type Molecule Confers Protection Against Fasciola hepatica Challenge by Inducing IFN-γ and Antibody Immune Responses Through IL-17A Production.

Fasciola hepatica is helminth parasite found around the world that causes fasciolosis, a chronic disease affecting mainly cattle, sheep, and occasionally humans. Triclabendazole is the drug of choice to treat this parasite. However, the continuous use of this drug has led to the development of parasite resistance and, consequently, the limitation of its effectiveness. Hence, vaccination appears as an attractive option to develop. In this work, we evaluated the potential of F. hepatica Kunitz-type molecule (FhKTM) as an antigen formulated with a liquid crystal nanostructure formed by self-assembly of 6-O-ascorbyl palmitate ester (Coa-ASC16) and the synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide containing unmethylated cytosine-guanine motifs (CpG-ODN) during an experimental model of fasciolosis in mice, and we further dissected the immune response associated with host protection. Our results showed that immunization of mice with FhKTM/CpG-ODN/Coa-ASC16 induces protection against F. hepatica challenge by preventing liver damage and improving survival after F. hepatica infection. FhKTM/CpG-ODN/Coa-ASC16-immunized mice elicited potent IFN-γ and IL-17A with high levels of antigen-specific IgG1, IgG2a, and IgA serum antibodies. Strikingly, IL-17A blockade during infection decreased IgG2a and IgA antibody levels as well as IFN-γ production, leading to an increase in mortality of vaccinated mice. The present study highlights the potential of a new vaccine formulation to improve control and help the eradication of F. hepatica infection, with potential applications for natural hosts such as cattle and sheep.

Molecular characterisation and vaccine efficacy of two novel developmentally regulated surface tegument proteins of Fasciola hepatica.

The surface tegument of Fasciola hepatica is a crucial tissue due to its key role at the host-parasite interface. We characterised three novel proteins, termed Fhteg1, Fhteg5 and Fhteg8, that are found in the tegument membrane fraction of adult F. hepatica. Bioinformatic analysis of proteomic datasets identified Fhteg5 and Fhteg8 as tegumental glycoproteins and revealed that Fhteg1, Fhteg5 and Fhteg8 are associated with exosomes of adult F. hepatica. Fhteg1, Fhteg5 and Fhteg8 appear to be related to uncharacterised sequences in F. gigantica, Fasciolopsis buski, Echinostoma caproni, Clonorchis sinensis, Opisthorchis viverrini, Schistosoma japonicum and S. mansoni, although F. hepatica appears to have expanded this family. Fhteg1 and Fhteg5 were characterised in detail. The Fhteg1 and Fhteg5 gene transcripts each demonstrate significant upregulation in juvenile fluke 2-4 days post-excystment, with transcript levels maintained during development over 3 weeks in vitro. RNAseq data showed that both Fhtegs are expressed in the adult life stage, although the transcript levels were about 8 fold lower than those in juveniles (3 week post infection). Using immunocytochemistry, Fhteg1 and Fhteg5 were each shown to be expressed in cells adjacent to the muscle layer as well as on the surface of 1 week old juveniles, whilst Fhteg5 was also present in cells at the base of the pharynx. RNAi mediated knockdown of Fhteg1 and Fhteg5 transcripts in 4-10 day old juveniles had no effect on parasite survival, movement or growth in vitro. Although no IgG responses were observed for Fhteg1 or Fhteg5 during infection in sheep and cattle, both proteins elicited a low IgG response in a proportion of infected rats. Rats vaccinated with Fhteg1 and Fhteg5 showed good IgG responses to both proteins and a mean 48.2 % reduction in worm burden following parasite challenge. Although vaccination of cattle with both proteins induced a range of IgG responses, no protection was observed against parasite challenge. This is the first study to provide insights into the molecular properties of two novel, developmentally regulated surface tegument proteins in F. hepatica.

Fasciola hepatica-Derived Molecules as Regulators of the Host Immune Response.

Helminths (worms) are one of the most successful organisms in nature given their ability to infect millions of humans and animals worldwide. Their success can be attributed to their ability to modulate the host immune response for their own benefit by releasing excretory-secretory (ES) products. Accordingly, ES products have been lauded as a potential source of immunomodulators/biotherapeutics for an array of inflammatory diseases. However, there is a significant lack of knowledge regarding the specific interactions between these products and cells of the immune response. Many different compounds have been identified within the helminth "secretome," including antioxidants, proteases, mucin-like peptides, as well as helminth defense molecules (HDMs), each with unique influences on the host inflammatory response. HDMs are a conserved group of proteins initially discovered in the secretome of the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica. HDMs interact with cell membranes without cytotoxic effects and do not exert antimicrobial activity, suggesting that these peptides evolved specifically for immunomodulatory purposes. A peptide generated from the HDM sequence, termed FhHDM-1, has shown extensive anti-inflammatory abilities in clinically relevant models of diseases such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis, asthma, and acute lung injury, offering hope for the development of a new class of therapeutics. In this review, the current knowledge of host immunomodulation by a range of F. hepatica ES products, particularly FhHDM-1, will be discussed. Immune regulators, including HDMs, have been identified from other helminths and will also be outlined to broaden our understanding of the variety of effects these potent molecules exert on immune cells.

Cattle co-infection of Echinococcus granulosus and Fasciola hepatica results in a different systemic cytokine profile than single parasite infection.

E. granulosus is a cestode that causes Cystic Echinococcosis (CE), a zoonotic disease with worldwide presence. The immune response generated by the host against the metacestode induces a permissive Th2 response, as opposed to pro-inflammatory Th1 response. In this view, mixed Th2 and regulatory responses allow parasite survival. Overall, larval Echinococcus infections induce strong regulatory responses. Fasciola hepatica, another common helminth parasite, represents a major infection in cattle. Co-infection with different parasite species in the same host, polyparasitism, is a common occurrence involving E. granulosus and F. hepatica in cattle. 'While it is known that infection with F. hepatica also triggers a polarized Th2/Treg immune response, little is reported regarding effects on the systemic immune response of this example of polyparasitism. F. hepatica also triggers immune responses polarized to the Th2/ Treg spectrum. Serum samples from 107 animals were analyzed, and were divided according to their infection status and Echinococcal cysts fertility. Cytokines were measured utilizing a Milliplex Magnetic Bead Panel to detect IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 and IL-18. Cattle infected only with F. hepatica had the highest concentration of every cytokine analyzed, with both 4.24 and 3.34-fold increases in IL-10 and IL-4, respectively, compared to control animals, followed by E. granulosus and F. hepatica co-infected animals with two-fold increase in IL-10 and IL-4, compared to control animals, suggesting that E. granulosus co-infection dampens the cattle Th2/Treg immune response against F. hepatica. When considering Echinococcal cyst fertility and systemic cytokine concentrations, fertile cysts had higher IFN-γ, IL-6 and IL-18 concentrations, while infertile cysts had higher IL-10 concentrations. These results show that E. granulosus co-infection lowers Th1 and Th2 cytokine serological concentration when compared to F. hepatica infection alone. E. granulosus infections show no difference in IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-18 levels compared with control animals, highlighting the immune evasion mechanisms of this cestode.

Identification of protective peptides of Fasciola hepatica-derived cathepsin L1 (FhCL1) in vaccinated sheep by a linear B-cell epitope mapping approach.

BACKGROUND: Fasciolosis is one of the most important parasitic diseases of livestock. The need for better control strategies gave rise to the identification of various vaccine candidates. The recombinant form of a member of the cysteine protease family, cathepsin L1 of Fasciola hepatica (FhCL1) has been a vaccine target for the past few decades since it has been shown to behave as an immunodominant antigen. However, when FhCL1 was used as vaccine, it has been observed to elicit significant protection in some trials, whereas no protection was provided in others. METHODS: In order to improve vaccine development strategy, we conducted a linear B-cell epitope mapping of FhCL1 in sheep vaccinated with FhCL1, FhHDM, FhLAP and FhPrx plus Montanide and with significant reduction of the fluke burden, sheep vaccinated with FhCL1, FhHDM, FhLAP and FhPrx plus aluminium hydroxide and with non-significant reduction of the fluke burden, and in unvaccinated-infected sheep. RESULTS: Our study showed that the pattern and dynamic of peptide recognition varied noticeably between both vaccinated groups, and that the regions 55-63 and 77-84, which are within the propeptide, and regions 102-114 and 265-273 of FhCL1 were specifically recognised only by vaccinated sheep with significant reduction of the fluke burden. In addition, these animals also showed significant production of specific IgG2, whereas none was observed in vaccinated-Aluminium hydroxide and in infected control animals. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified 42 residues of FhCL1 that contributed to protective immunity against infection with F. hepatica in sheep. Our results provide indications in relation to key aspects of the immune response. Given the variable outcomes of vaccination trials conducted in ruminants to date, this study adds new insights to improve strategies of vaccine development.